Translation scholar Peter Newmark (1916–2011) explored the concept of equivalence by asking whether a translation should stay as close as possible to the source language or aim to sound natural and idiomatic in the target language. He called these two approaches semantic translation and communicative translation, respectively.

According to Newmark, semantic translation tries to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the target language allow (1981, p. 39). This approach is source-text oriented—it stays loyal to the original author and often remains tied to the culture of the source text. Although it is readable, it helps the reader only when the cultural connotations are essential to the message. Semantic translation tends to be more detailed, complex, and even awkward at times, often overtranslating to preserve nuance. It typically operates at the level of the word or word-group (1981, p. 60).

In contrast, communicative translation aims to create a similar effect on the target reader as the original text had on its readers (1981, p. 39). This approach is target-text oriented—it uses freer, more idiomatic language to ensure a smooth reading experience. It assumes that the target reader won’t expect linguistic or cultural challenges and thus adapts foreign elements where necessary. Communicative translation prioritizes the overall message and its impact rather than sticking closely to form. It is usually simpler, clearer, more conventional, and tends to undertranslate by using more general terms in difficult passages. It works more at the sentence level (1981, p. 60).

In the next activity, you’ll identify which characteristics belong to Newmark’s communicative translation and which ones describe his semantic translation approach.